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Bilingual education
programs for return migrant students in Puerto Rico:
Perceptions of participants, parents and teachers
John Vázquez, Ed. D.
Introduction
This study was designed to explore how two bilingual
education programs in Puerto Rico provide for return migrant
students' linguistic, cultural adjustment and social
interaction needs as perceived by program participants,
their parents and teachers. Questions for the study were
derived from the return migrant students' established needs
as described in the literature (Arbona & García (1980),
Ashton (1980), Brown (1973), Cafferty & Rivera-Martínez
(1981), Ekstrand (1977), Irizarry (1981), Kavetsky (1978),
Paulston (1980), Prewitt-Díaz (1981), Ramos-Perea (1972),
Tilley (1982), and Zamora (1983).
Subjects were 41 male and 61 female students, their 102
migrant parents and 32 bilingual teachers. The mean age of
the students was 16 years within a range of 14 to 19 years
old. They were in public high school and receiving bilingual
education services as a result of their identified
educational needs in terms of their Spanish language
difficulties, lack of knowledge about Puerto Rican culture,
and social interaction conflicts. The parents were of low to
middle socioeconomic status.
Perceptions of respondents were measured by questionnaires
consisting of quantitative rating scales, closed and
qualitative open-ended ones. Students and teachers answered
the questionnaires in a classroom setting. Questionnaires
were sent to the parents who answered them individually.
Questions concerned perceptions based on how the programs
were meeting returnees' established needs, suggestions to
help them meet those needs, and returnees' problems in
adapting to the island's cultural and social environment.
The Chi-square test was used to determine whether there were
significant differences (p< .05) of opinion among
respondents' perceptions. Results showed that students and
parents felt returnees were making progress in their
linguistic development, whereas teachers felt the programs
provided for linguistic needs, but returnees were not
gaining skills. Students and parents expressed contentment
with the way teachers were helping returnees adapt
culturally. Teachers expressed dissatisfaction with how the
programs were helping returnees' overall cultural
adjustment. Returnees felt that the programs' social
activities were helping them make friends. Less than half of
the parents felt likewise. A moderate number of teachers
perceived that returnees were responding positively to the
programs' social adaptation efforts.
Review of literature
The review of literature which has been made on the existing
research shows that the crucial issues affecting the Puerto
Rican migrant returnee students are language difficulties,
cultural adjustment problems and social interaction needs.
Studies made by Vidal (1975), Kavetsky (1978), Ashton
(1980), Arbona and García (1980), Cafferty and Rivera-Martínez
(1981), as well as Irizarry (1981) feel that the linguistic
difficulties encountered by migrant students upon returning
to the island indicate a grave need in terms of helping them
overcome this barrier. Ramos- Perea (1972), Carrero (1978)
and Prewitt-Díaz (1981) have studied the cultural adjustment
problems of returnees and have emphasized the need to design
programs for these students which takes these aspects into
consideration. Maldonado-Denis (1976), Ekstrand (1977),
Pacheco-Maldonado, Wapner and Lucca (1979), Robles, Martínez
and Moscoso (1980) as well as Nogueras and Prewitt-Díaz
(1981) stress the social interaction needs of returned
migrant students which have become an educational issue and
presents a challenge to bilingual education programs.
A. Linguistic Needs
Cafferty and Rivera-Martínez (1981) describe the linguistic
plight of the Puerto Rican migrant child who moves back and
forth between two linguistic cultures. He questions the way
in which they are more able to learn and the linguistic
medium through which they learn best. Since the typical
Puerto Rican migrant is a cyclical migrant, this fact
represents a distinctive problem for these children.
Children caught up in this cyclical movement cannot learn
only Spanish nor only English. Whatever their first language
and whatever the dominant language in their school, these
children "must learn both (languages), they must become more
able than most of us, because they must survive in two
monolingual cultures: Puerto Rico and mainland United
States" (p. xi).
B. Cultural Adjustment Needs
Ramos-Perea (1972) viewed the concept of adjustment from the
students' own perspectives and conceptions of school and
self. It was operationally defined in terms of the students'
agreement or disagreement, satisfaction or dissatisfaction
with specific aspects of the school environment. The latter
relate to the school goals, the reward and punishment
system, the norms relating to the students' role, and the
students' participation in the formal and informal social
groups in the school.
C. Social Interaction Needs
Brown (1973) has stated that the human being is socially
orientated and the chief mechanism for maintaining the bonds
of society is language. Thus, the process of second language
acquisition must involve an interaction with the new society
and a linguistic understanding of that speech community.
When Puerto Rican migrant students go to live in the
mainland United States for the first time, they must strive
to interact socially with their new environment in order to
learn the second language well. Later, when they return to
Puerto Rico, they must once more endeavor to interact
socially in order to communicate in their own native
language, which seems more like a second language for those
who have lived numerous years on the mainland and have not
used their first language to a great extent while living
there.
Ekstrand (1977) feels that the total adjustment process of
the migrant comprises much more than the acquisition of a
new language, although this is an important part of the
process. The migrant must also acquire new concepts, new
behavior patterns and new emotional ties.
D. Bilingual Education
It is not a farce to state that the plethora of literature
concerning return migrant students often implies a need for
bilingual educational programs geared towards returnees'
linguistic difficulties, cultural adjustment problems, and
social interaction needs. However, it is important to
determine what bilingual education per se is supposed to do.
According to Zamora (1983) the goals of bilingual education
are meant to help language-minority students to:
Carrillo (1983) purports that
bilingualism has not functioned as a positive factor for
many Spanish-speaking students in the United States because
the schools have not capitalized on the linguistic skills
already possessed by the students. In other words, the
students have not been given the opportunity to develop to
their fullest potential in their mother tongue.
Consequently, their home language has been a liability
rather than an asset. As a result, native speakers of the
language have felt frustration and some have turned against
their own language.
In terms of a broader point of view, Rugsaken (1983) has
stated that "bilingual education (if it is what it says it
is) is a vehicle for the achievement of the United States'
multi-language capabilities which are necessary in securing
this country's international political and economic
influence" (p.10).
How this is done is an issue of great debate among
professional educators and lay people. There is much
confusion and controversy between those who advocate
transfer-oriented (transitional) programs which stress the
goals of assimilation to mainstream society, and those who
advocate maintenance-oriented programs, which stress the
goals of preservation of ethnic language and culture (Baratz,
1973).
Tilley (1982) has observed that English as a Second Language
(ESL) and the Teaching English to Speakers of Other
Languages (TESOL) are transferoriented programs, whereas
bilingual education programs tend to be maintenanceoriented
with assimilationist features. These program names, however,
are often used synonymously. Von Maltitz (1975) has noted
that transfer-oriented programs such as ESL and TESOL are
aimed at helping students over the difficult language
hurdle, making it possible for them to keep up in their
academic work while they are learning enough English to
function successfully in regular English classes. In
contrast, bilingual education programs encourage pupils from
various ethnic groups to develop and maintain their
knowledge of the mother tongue while also mastering English.
Thus, such programs aim to develop truly and competently
literate bilingual individuals.
In case of temporary migrants, mother tongue maintenance by
the children takes on extreme importance as the basis for
successful reintegration into their country of origin. In
this vein, Paulston (1980) recalls the language policy of
the Standing Conference of European Ministers of Education
in 1974:
Migrants' children should be assured of a good knowledge
of their mother tongue and indigenous culture, for the
mother tongue is one of the foundations of their development
and is likely to facilitate the learning of other languages.
In terms of positive outcomes, Sánchez (1981) states that
bilingualism will develop better educated, more cultured
individuals who will help to build "a more culturally rich,
linguistically sympathetic society" (p. 86). Moreover, in
another article, Blonstedt, Thomas and Teyna (1983)
philosophize that through the bilingual approach to
education,
each child is led to understand that his life is his own
to lead, and that no one else can lead it for him. He comes
to understand that it is pointless to blame failure on
environment, family temperament, or the influence of others,
when ultimately the individual is free to choose for
himself. The effective bilingual teacher incorporates fully
into the program of pedagogy those ingredients which enable
each student to conclude that for him the future is his to
make. (p. 28)
Similarly, Castellanos (1985)
has reported that advocates of the bilingual methodology
feel that it is both philosophical and practical: it is at
once sound in theory as well as workable in fact.
Consequently, Castellanos claims that it has yielded
positive learning results in the cognitive as well as
affective domain. In essence, it provides a means toward the
development of a harmonious and positive self- image.
During this past August, Martínez (1992) reported in a local
newspaper that return migrant parents and their children
confront serious problems concerning adequate living
conditions, unemployment, bilingual schools to meet the
linguistic needs of their children, and lack of health
facilities such as the ones that they were accustomed to on
the mainland. Moreover, rejection by their native island
peers increases their difficulties of establishing
meaningful inter-cultural relationships.
When considering what has been presented thus far, it would
be wise to inform policy makers, teachers and all those
concerned with the education of our children, to consider
the precarious return migrant students' needs. Therefore, it
is important to carry out inter-cultural research aimed at
finding ways of ameliorating the linguistic, cultural and
social hardships encountered by both return migrant parents
and their children.
Methodology
Setting
The development of bilingual programs throughout selected
districts of the island's educational system prompted this
researcher to be concerned about the programs' efficacy in
dealing with returnees' linguistic, cultural adjustment and
social interaction needs. In order to gain a greater insight
into the quality of services endered to the returnees, it
was decided in this study to examine the programs developed
at two Junior and Senior High Schools in the greater San
Juan metropolitan area of the island.
Sample
The research sample consisted of three groups: return
migrant students, their migrant parents and their bilingual
teachers. Each of the first two groups contained 102
subjects and the latter group contained 32 subjects. Data
concerning demographic characteristics were collected from
all three groups. Frequency counts and percentage
distribution were used to analyze all of this data.
Instruments
Three instruments were specially designed for this
exploratory study which consisted of a return migrant
students' questionnaire, a return migrant parents'
questionnaire and another for bilingual education teachers.
In keeping with the curricula of the bilingual schools of
this study, the research instruments covered the gamut of
academic, cultural and social activities available to return
migrant students.
The questionnaires for this study were developed with a
particular form by following the guidelines of Thorndike and
Hagen (1969) who recommend the rating scale format in order
"to get appraisals on a common set of attributes for all
raters and to have these expressed on a common quantitative
scale" (p. 422).
Consequently, for this particular study, rating scales were
designed with a range of adjectives representing
respondents' degree of perceptions indicated by a check mark
at some appropriate point on a line. To illustrate, an item
concerning social interaction needs that was originally
expressed in a negative manner ("I feel that students who
are not in the bilingual program do not like me"), was then
expressed in positive terms by using the rating scale format
to help students specify more clearly the extent of their
perceptions on a quantitative scale ranging from 1 ("not
well" or unfavorable) to 9 ("better" or favorable).
For example,
I feel that students who are not in the bilingual program
like me.
|____|____|____|___|___ |____|____|____
The rating scale format was discussed with colleagues,
administrators and school teachers who gave their approval
to the research instrument. Thus, face validity was
determined by these educators who expressed their positive
judgment on the data gathering instrument as being a
reflection of the perceptions it intends to measure.
The questionnaires also consisted of various open-ended
questions as suggested by Patton (1980) because they allow
"the person being interviewed to select from among that
person's full repertoire of possible responses" (p. 212).
Moreover, Patton thinks that such qualitative questions help
determine the dimensions, themes, images and words those
respondents who are familiar with a particular education
program use among themselves to describe their thoughts,
feelings and experiences.
Procedure
To interpret the data, a descriptive analysis based on
frequency counts and percentage distribution for each rating
scale was made. For the purpose of presentation, the 9
divisions of the rating scale format were collapsed to 3
ordinal categories. Next, a reliability coefficient was made
of the items measuring linguistic perceptions among the
students' and parents' group. The reliability test was made
to determine which items were related to the general scale.
A correlation coefficient of .71 between the students' scale
and .85 for the parents' scale was found. The teachers'
scale has a .81 correlation coefficient. The reliability
coefficients ranged from .71 to mid .80's. Therefore, the
three scales were found adequate for the purpose of this
study.
To analyze respondents' perceptions as expressed on the
rating scales, a Chi-square frequency distribution
appropriate to the comparison of the three responding groups
was used based on Kerlinger's (1973, p. 166-173) guidelines.
Moreover, the Chi-square statistic was employed to find the
significance of differences between proportions of
respondents' perceptions by comparing observed frequencies
and expected ones. The .05 level of significance was used to
test the observed relationships between respondents'
perceptions. These appraisals, expressed on the quantitative
rating scale, were processed following the guidelines of the
Statistical
Package for Social Sciences.
Descriptive statistics were made to analyze the open-ended
questions in terms of their content matter. These questions
were first tabulated using frequency counts. Each open-ended
question was rewritten at the top of a draft sheet and this
researcher checked each respondent’s questionnaire to see
what each one wrote concerning the particular question.
Thus, a tally was made of the number of respondents giving a
particular answer as well as those who gave the same or
similar answer. The findings of the open-ended questions
have been integrated with the rest of the research findings.
Research findings
Demographic Characteristics of the Student Group
The analyses based on the returnees' demographic
characteristics revealed that although the majority (59.8%)
of returnees (N=61) were born in Puerto Rico, they have
lived more than half their lives (11 years; 52%) on the
mainland. Hence, this indicates that at least 9 out of every
10 returnees have been socialized in mainland schools.
It is also important to note that close to seventy-eight
percent of returnees (N=79) did not attend a bilingual
program while living on the mainland. As a result, they did
not develop Spanish language skills, and did not have an
opportunity to become familiar with the island's culture.
Demographic Characteristic of the Parent Group
More than half of the return migrant parents (N=65) were
unemployed even though the majority (N=77; 75.5%) have had
high school education and have worked in sales or clerical
occupations. Before migrating to the mainland, more than
half of the parents (N=62) lived in an urban area.
Sixty-five percent of these respondents (N=66) lived on the
mainland for more than 11 years. Most of them had not been
back for very long since the highest percentage (58.8%;
N=60) have returned from 1 to 4 years prior to this study.
Nevertheless, an interesting finding is that the majority of
return migrant parents (N=70) live in urban areas inhabited
by the growing middle class island residents.
Demographic Characteristics of the Teacher Group
Close to forty-one percent of the bilingual teachers (N=13)
who participated in this study had 3 years or less
experience working in bilingual programs. Similarly,
forty-one percent of the teachers (N=13) had never lived on
the mainland. It is important to note that in terms of
academic preparation, the majority (N=24; 75%) of the
bilingual teacher respondents only obtained a bachelor's
degree and only twenty-two percent (N=7) held a master's
degree in their respective fields.
In summary, the demographic data reveals a population of
students who had lived most of their lives on the mainland
and had not attended bilingual programs. Their parents had
not been able to find work upon returning to the island,
although they seemed to be living relatively well from their
savings. The children are being taught by teachers with no
life experience on the mainland and relatively new at
teaching returnees.
Linguistic Area
The results show that in general, the students are
enthusiastic about the programs' language aspects,
particularly in terms of the English language. Likewise,
parents also seemed content with returnees' language
progress, especially in the oral, reading and written
aspects of English. However, the teachers did not feel that
returnees were working up to par. They also thought
mistakenly that returnees are not proud of the Spanish
language.
It seems that perhaps the returnees are judging themselves
according to their own progress while teachers are judging
returnees in terms of absolute expected performance and thus
comparing them to what native students are capable of
achieving. This is confirmed by the great number of teachers
(65.6%) who felt that the programs' objectives were geared
towards returnees' needs. Nevertheless, they answered rather
negatively with respect to language skills which means they
were not thinking of the program but of student performance.
It would be more reasonable if teachers would evaluate
returnees by using relative standards, and take into
consideration how much progress they have accomplished in
Spanish since they began in the program rather than how well
they know the language as compared to island students their
same age.
This finding is similar to Prewitt-Díaz (1981) who found
that teachers on the mainland tended to show low teacher
expectations of migrants' success in school. Some even
considered migrants lazy and unruly. Hence, there seems to
be parallelism towards the way some teachers feel about
returnees on the mainland and the way teachers feel about
them on the island. It is possible that part of the
teachers' insensivity towards returnees' language
difficulties may be due to the fact that they are not
familiar with the mainland situation, since the majority of
them have never lived on the continent.
The qualitative information gleaned from interviewing
teachers indicates that returnees could first benefit most
from a functional language approach which would assess what
they are actually capable of doing with the language. This
means that the emphasis should be on students' command of
communicative functions in the classroom, to be able to
comprehend what certain words and expressions mean when
others say them, and to understand their meaning when they
occur in reading materials.
This also means that Spanish instruction has to be related
to returnees' specific linguistic needs. Moreover, some
teachers felt that the Spanish language program could
benefit returnees by being integrated with the regular
instructional program. In this way, the Spanish that is
being taught to these students will be the language they
will need in the classroom, on the school grounds, in their
communities and throughout the island as they interact with
peers, relatives and new acquaintances. Also, they will need
to acquire a good command of writing and reading in Spanish
so that they may be successful in their attempts to form
part of the island's college bound students or qualify to
enter vocational schools.
Cultural Area
The findings of the cultural area indicate that students and
parents are satisfied with the way the programs are helping
returnees to understand how native islanders live. Although
the teachers showed overall dissatisfaction with the
programs' cultural adjustment efforts, they indicated
positive perceptions in the rest of the cultural questions.
In addition, it is evident that all respondents expressed
the need of helping returnees understand the island's
culture by increasing communication with native residents
and exposing students to more cultural activities.
Other information obtained from interviewing teachers shows
that most of the returnees who participated in this study
have assimilated the behavior patterns and values of the
mainland culture. As a result, their outlook on life is
generally different from the one that their native peers
have on the island. This supports Ramos-Perea's (1972) study
which found that the longer students stayed on the mainland,
the more assimilated they become in the cultural, social and
linguistic patterns of that continent. Thus, students'
extent of acculturation and assimilation in one particular
culture may determine the extent of their maladjustment in
another one.
Social Area
The data results of the social needs area indicate that one
particular aspect that should be explored further is the
teachers' negative attitude towards migration, which seems
to be affecting their whole outlook on how to work with
students caught in this plight. An area in need of
improvement in order for returnees to develop their
self-image are the school's social activities. All the
respondents expressed concern regarding the need for a
greater variety of social activities, and enhancing
returnees' communication with native students. This would
aid returnees in their social interaction and would make
them feel a part of the rest of the student body.
Implications and Recommendations
One of the most important implications is that there is a
need for more Bilingual/Bicultural Education Programs in
order to provide for the linguistic, cultural and social
interaction needs of students when they return to continue
their education on the island. Moreover, there is a greater
need to improve the programs that exist. However, policy
makers, administrators and teachers must understand what the
programs are doing well in order to replicate them. Since
the data results show that teachers do not seem completely
knowledgeable about the returnee population, they should be
involved in teacher preparation activities that will help
them to develop better programs for returnees.
The particular findings under each area can be used by
policy makers, administrators, school directors and teachers
to ameliorate the quality of bilingual education programs on
the island that are rendered to the often confused and
despondent returnees. Once the current bilingual programs
are improved by using some of this study's results as
guidelines, then returnees will eventually be able to
integrate easily into the island's linguistic, cultural and
social mainstream.
It can also be implied from the research findings that
parents' high level of unemployment is a critical situation
that may be affecting their children's security and
emotional stability in their academic progress, cultural and
social adjustment. Hence, the public Government agencies
should strive to provide the return migrant parents with
reorientation to the island culture so that they will be
motivated to look for job opportunities.
The return migrant students' adjustment process should be
viewed as a total integration behavior comprising bilingual
ability, cultural understanding and social interaction
skills in order for acculturation to occur. Moreover, a
humanistic approach toward methodology which gives
importance to the affective and socio-psychological factors
should have priority so that these rather dejected students
can feel accepted and thus, be motivated to achieve success.
This implies that the island's educational system should not
only improve the training of all persons who work directly
with returnees throughout the island, but should also
provide information to community members so that they can
understand the problems affecting the migrant families. The
local news media could also be influential in enhancing the
image of these families by creating an awareness of their
contribution to the island's economy and society.
A possible remedy for teachers to overcome their negative
attitudes towards working with returnees would be for the
University of Puerto Rico to offer intensive
teacher-training exchange program in collaboration with
other universities or agencies on the mainland.
Consequently, when teachers return to the island, they can
be better prepared to deal with the language difficulties
that returnees need to ameliorate in order to integrate
easily into the public school's linguistic, cultural and
social ambiance.
Once the teachers are sensitized to returnees' urgent needs,
the school directors will eventually be influenced by their
concerns and probably administrators will also respond
positively. This latter group could be highly instrumental
in helping to pool together all the resources needed to
provide a variety of services to these precarious students.
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